cereals

Components of the agricultural system are not only animals, but also plants. Of all the plants grown in Australia, wheat and winter cereals are the most important. This part covers the most important crops in Australian agriculture.

CROPS

TABLE 1 shows the area of crops in the States and Territories of Australia since 1870-71, and TABLE 2 is a summary of the area, production and gross value of the principal crops in Australia over recent years.

TABLE 1 AREA OF CROPS - AUSTRALIA ‘000 ha

Source: Agriculture, Australia (71

AREA OF PRODUCTION AND GROSS VALUE OF PRINCIPAL CEREAL GRAINS

TABLE 2 SELECTED CROPS, Area, Production and Gross Value

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(a) Area is productive area.

(b) Value of cotton includes value of cotton seed.

Source: Agriculture, Australia (7113.0); ABS data available on request, Agricultural Commodities Survey, Agricultural Census, Value of Agricultural Commodities Produced.

In Australia, cereals are divided into autumn-winter-spring growing (winter cereals) and spring-summer autumn growing (summer cereals). Winter cereals such as wheat, oats, barley and rye are usually grown in rotation with some form of pasture such as subterranean clover, medics or lucerne.

In recent years, alternative winter crops such as canola, field peas and lupins have been introduced to crop rotation in areas where they had not previously been grown. Rice, maize and sorghum are summer cereals, the latter being grown in association with winter cereals in some areas. In northern Australia there are two rice growing seasons.

See wheat

See oats

See barley

See grain sorghum

See maize

See rice

WINTER CEREAL GROWING AREAS

The late autumn and winter rains are fairly reliable and satisfactory

for the braiding and early growth of crops. Waterlogging and severe frosts are rarely experienced so that winter killing is not a factor of any importance. The survival of plants from braiding to jointing is usually very high.

Reliability of the spring rains is not as satisfactory and there is a high correlation between total production and precipitation during this period. Late frosts at flowering time may be a factor in determining grains per ear but they rarely occur more frequently than 1 in 5 years. High temperatures (for example, in early summer) are not a disadvantage but largely determine the sample of malting barley produced. The latter crop tends to be concentrated in those areas with a high reliability for mildness in the late spring weather which allows the desired slow ripening period.

Wheat and barley when ripe, and ready for heading, stands high winds better than oats. Damage by wind at this stage is an important factor in the yield of oats in many parts of Australia.

SPRING CEREALS

GRAIN SORGHUM

In the dryland farming areas grain sorghum is the most important summer grain. Not all crops are grow to maturity and the expected yields are unpredictable largely because of the unpredictability

of the summer rains in NSW. It provides excellent fodder and being fed to stock in dry seasons. Sorghum growing has shown a dramatic increase in the recent years and after wheat and barley, is the most important crop in the dryland belt.

The grain is used in feed mixes for poultry, pigs and cattle. The genetics of grain sorghum has changed dramatically and almost all seed sown is from hybrids.

BIRD SEED

Millets for bird seed are almost all produced in dryland farming districts. The seasonal conditions necessary for millets are almost identical with those required for grain sorghum. As with many less significant crops there is a trend for a small number of farmers on adjoining properties to adopt similar cropping practices so that a "millet area" is established. Seed millets are largely grown on the border region between Queensland and NSW.

OILSEED SUNFLOWERS

Dryland farmers of the summer rainfall belt, crop significant quantities of sunflowers for the edible oil seed industry. Quick growing varieties have been developed and can survive a large variety of soil types. Farmers with lighter sandy soils have a better chance of success with sunflowers than with grain sorghum if they require a summer cash crop. The major pests are Galahs and cockatoos. The yield is only about half that expected from grain sorghum, however, as the market potential is good they are a good proposition in the summer rainfall belt.

WHEAT

Not all winter cereals are grown in the winter rainfall belt. By careful seedbed preparation and astute weed control farmers can store moisture from summer rains in the soil to aid winter crop production.

Large improved wheat seeding machines have been developed allowing the farmer to sow the entire farm within a few days. This reduces risk as wheat growing relies on a small amount of precipitation to ensure

sufficient soil moisture for uniform germination. If soil preparation has been thorough, wheat may grow in areas with precipitation as low as12 cm per annum. Distribution of the rain is most important with the critical times (NSW ) being June, August and September.

Quick growing wheats or early maturing wheats have been developed which mature in November even when sown in July. The use of such quick growing varieties reduces risk.

The growing season for wheat is increases in the southern parts of NSW and Victoria. In Victoria, the growing season may extend from April to November. Northern wheats are used predominantly in the bread baking industry. Bakers require 11% protein in wheat flour and it has to have special characteristics which will permit the loaf to rise. Biscuit wheat is quite different and is grown in the southern areas of NSW. Biscuits do not rise and therefore, require a low protein wheat.

Two other types of wheat are grown in small quantities specifically for winter grazing and the other for breakfast cereal industry. The latter is high in protein but with a protein lacking the chemical properties necessary for bread making. The classification of wheats is shown below:

AUSTRALIA'S WHEAT CLASSIFICATION SYSTEM

This shows clear regional variations between wheat type with the prime hard wheat being grown almost exclusively in northern NSW and southern Queensland.

SOILS

The main soil problem in wheat growing areas is the basic deficiency of Australian soils in phosphates. Granite and shale soils in the wheat belt require 100 kg/ha of superphosphate or the equivalent each year a

crop is sown. However, some basalts and certainly, the alluvial flood plains in the south west of NSW have adequate phosphate. In southern NSW, wheat is commonly grown in rotation with subterranean clover and rye grass pastures.

Nitrogen levels in the soil are maintained if leguminous pastures (such as clovers) are used in the crop rotation. Northern wheat farmers of NSW have the advantage of natural burr medics to build up nitrogen in ley phases. Should the nitrogen be depleted or if a rotation is not adopted, nitrogen may be added in the form of urea of nitrogen at sowing time.

Potash is seldom deficient in NSW soils. Poor sandy soils with insufficient fertilizer may yield less than 1 tonne of wheat per hectare whereas a good crop with everything in its favour will yield more than 3 tonnes per hectare.

The build up of acid over years of cropping means that a large area of the western wheat built requires constant liming.

DISEASES

RUST

Rust is potentially the most serious disease affecting wheat production in NSW. New rust resistant varieties are being continually used and improved. It is caused by a fungus which like all other successful parasites has the ability to adapt to new hosts.

Fortunately, there are still several varieties of wheat with an inherent resistant to rust. Breeders use these varieties with existing susceptible varieties to obtain a combination of characteristics necessary for economic wheat production. Another fungus attacks the roots of wheat causing "rootrot". A serious epidemic of this disease can be prevented by crop rotation.

Farmers are able to control another fungus disease called "take all" or "stinking smut". This disease is controlled by "pickling" wheat prior to sowing. The seeds of a number of crops are treated with fungicidal dusts before sowing.

WEEDS

Weed build up can cause serious competition with wheat, reducing yields however, most weed problems are reduced using crop rotations. If a farmer chooses to increase the cropping phase rather than the ley phase on a rotation he has to employ strategies to kill the weeds. Several herbicides are available and the farmer has to decide whether the cost of the herbicide is less than the expected marginal return.

BLACK OATS

Black oats is universally the most devastating weed of cereal crops. Although sprays have been developed to control black oats, they are expensive and not always effective. The use of weed free ploughed seed beds compared with minimum tillage seed beds requires a complete economic analysis to determine the optimal bed. In some favoured areas minimum outlays and herbicidal control of weeds gives the farmer more flexibility however, in drier areas long fallows are recommended as common practice. The land may be ploughed in late winter and cultivated after each fall of rain until the wheat is sown following winter. Not only does cultivation kill weeds, it also conserves moisture and improves the structure of the soil.

Some farmers lightly graze a growing wheat crop. This practice provides fodder for livestock and holds back a crop which may be too advanced. If crops flower and frosts are severe then serious damage may be caused to the young wheat embryo when fertilisation has taken place. Farmers frequently make hay from the "headlands" in a paddock which lack uniformity in growth

GROWING OATS AND BARLEY

Oats and barley are grown extensively on dryland farms as winter fodder crops. Oats is more common in colder districts and both are grown for grain. Barley is of 2 types; "one row" or "two row". This refers to the number of rows of grain on the seed head. Only two row barley is used in the malt or brewing industry but either may be used in the feed grain industry. Barley grain is sought after by stock feed millers who prepare meals for poultry, pigs and cattle. The soils and climate of South Australia is particularly suited for barley growing.

Oats and barley have their own specific fungal parasites. Both crops are grown in rotation with wheat. Oats is similar to wheat when viewed from a distance and is harvested in the same way. Oat grain will often be

stored on the farm as a drought reserve or sold at a later date when prices improve.

SUBTERRANEAN CLOVER

Because of the need for crop rotation large areas of wheat country are often sown down to subterranean clover each year - see diagrams below. Specialised machinery is needed to harvest clover seed. Throughout the southern half of NSW, machinery owners contract to harvest seed for growers. Some farmers will allow selected paddocks to seed heavily by restricting the stocking rate.

COMMON ROTATIONS USING SUBTERRANEAN CLOVER

COMMON ROTATIONS IN MEDIC AREAS

See linseed oil

See rapeseed

See canola